Socrates is often considered the beginning of philosophy. There were philosophers before him, but they were natural philosophers and they did not have his riches and strong character. So it is Socrates that is often used to initiate students into philosophy because Socrates introduced and embodied a new mode of being, namely, the philosopher. This was truly a new and unique way of being a human being and living one’s life.
Socrates’ thinking and his life was characterized by doing philosophy and pursuing knowledge. For Socrates this meant questioning those who claimed to know something. This in turn generated a lot of enmity towards him and he was put on trial, convicted and sentenced to death for refusing to stop criticizing and discrediting those who had power and influence in Athens. I encourage anyone who does not know Socrates, his story and his ideas to at least read Plato’s Apology which is the account of his defense against the false charges which were brought against him and his justification for pursuing philosophy and living the kind of the life that he did. Here I want to briefly discuss what I consider to be some of the most valuable insights of Socrates. I will also try to show that these can be valuable and useful today as they have always been.
The Care of the Soul and Virtues
Socrates is after knowledge but he is very careful about the claims that he makes. He says that he knows nothing, and that unlike sophists, he does not have any wisdom worth selling. But he does sometimes make some strong claims about those things that are important to him and which he considers to be most worthy and valuable. Socrates’ main advice in the Apology and his philosophical mission is the care of the soul. He urges every Athenian (and I suppose us or anyone who wants to listen to him) to not go after money, fame, or possessions but to take every care of the soul and make it as good as possible. Socrates believes that the former things are not so worthy and that the way to care for the soul is by pursuing virtues. But what is pursuing virtues?
In the ancient Greek world, the word for virtue was arête and it referred to excellence of any kind. In the Homeric world, Achilles excelled in games. Penelope showed excellence in sustaining a household. Importantly, the virtues were exercised and exhibited in some but not all areas of human activity. Which ones? Virtues are achieved and exercised in the course of those human activities in which pursuing and excelling in them brings with it some additional virtues, good effects and benefits that can only be found in those activities or activities like them. By this I mean that while kicking a ball well is not a form of activity and an arena in which virtues are exhibited, the game of football is because in becoming good at it, one also learns, for instance, about team play and working in unison with others, about fair play, respect and playing by the rules, and working towards accomplishing short and long term goals. Moreover, acquiring these good qualities is part of what makes the game what it is, and if a person tries to get around them, then he or she just can not be a good player.
Bricklaying is not an activity in which virtues can be exhibited and cultivated, but architecture is. The virtues can also be exercised in pursuing a wide range of activities because there are all kinds of side benefits and good rewards in pursuing arts, music, philosophy, mathematics, sciences, law, writing, and so no, where you are not only excelling in what you are doing but are also becoming good at other things and in other ways. Of course in pursuing these activities, one can end up with prestige, social status, and money, but what connects them with virtues are not these external goods but picking up the virtues (the abilities, qualities, and insights) which can only be gained by excelling in them. In doing philosophy and pursuing knowledge by studying many thinkers over many years, one not only learns about philosophy and how to test knowledge claims, but one is also likely to become better at listening to others, more willing to contemplate views that are different than one’s own, more civil and polite, and better in expressing oneself clearly and thinking clearly, more charitable to other people’s views, and so on.
What is important to note is that the external goods that come with pursuing some complex activities, such as wealth and good jobs, are scarce, there is often competition over them, and there are sometimes winners and losers, but the internal goods, the virtues that Socrates takes to be the worthy things, are always free, plenty and available for anyone who wants to pursue them, with enough left for others. Moreover, pursuing them not only makes you better but it brings benefits to those around you. It is even possible that we pursue excellence in some activity and never become very good at it, but still walk away with some other virtues and abilities. So there are even rewards for not very good football players and students of philosophy. However, needless to say, most people often have their eyes on the external goods and see complex human activities and endeavors as a means to them and very often there are few takers when it comes to the virtues.
This conception of virtue and excellence which I have been describing is not very well-known and prominent in the contemporary world. It is an important part of Socrates thinking on Ethics. What is unique about it is that it is about focusing on making oneself good. It is about putting pressure and being hard on one’s own self. It is about working on cultivating and creating the self. To pursue the virtues, you need to understand them and have a clear account of them. You must have a sharp eye on them. But you also crucially need a conception of yourself as one who desires them but lacks them and a conception of yourself as one who possess them and is empowered by them, so that you can work your way from the former state to the latter. In other words, to reach your potential and become good, you need a conception of yourself as who you are and a conception of yourself based on who you can be, so that you can realize it and move towards that end.
This conception of what it means to be good is very different than the kind of popular, cheap and easy morality which comes from having your eyes on the supposed sins of others and from judging others quickly and harshly. Socrates was convicted and put to death largely because of the terrible but false things that were said about him by those who listen, add to, and spread this kind of stuff. Clearly, those who are always talking about the faults of others, those who are perpetually in the state of shock over the supposed bad behaviors and actions of others, and those who can only feel good about themselves by bringing others down, do not know about the virtues and the way of virtues. Those who like mullahs normalize others and are punishers are often so sure of their own righteousness that they hardly worry about their own moral blind spots and inadequacies or making themselves better. The virtues in contrast give us the knowledge of what to do, how to order our soul, how to become good and how to achieve happiness, but not how to judge others.
What others make of themselves is of course largely their business and beyond our reach, but we have so much power over our own lives and what we can do with them and with ourselves. I really do not worry about the wrong things that other people do. I largely give them a free pass and expect nothing much of them, but I take responsibility for my own actions and keep a close eye on them. This is hardly missed on those who know me well. I also hate gossip and I often tell others that I do not consider wrong anything that consenting adults may do and that I am not interested in hearing about such things. Needless to say, I can not get into other people’s minds and compel them to interpret this in a charitable way and not to turn into it something nasty and immoral, to be used against me. But even in those cases, my attitude is: go ahead and be my guest, if you must. Reader, truly, if you were to wrong me, I would of course not like it, but I would not dwell on it much because what you do simply does not fall under what I am responsible for.
Pursuing the virtues offers us a way to become good and to define ourselves based on what we achieve and accomplish and make of ourselves. This is in contrast to the conventional morality which often involves the making of the ‘Other’ and projecting the worst on those who are worse off than us, those who threaten us in some way and who we take to be our opponents, and bestowing high and good motives and instincts on ourselves. Sadly, we are usually very dismissive of others and the virtues of others because if we acknowledged that they had something over us, then we would have to stop what we are doing and address this lack. If we overlook the various virtues and the silent but strong demands that they make on us, then we can somehow go on better and with peace pursue the external goods that we know of, like wealth and prestige. It is no wonder that Socrates believes that a life without examination is not worth living, we are simply unlikely to hit on some of the worthy things in life, unless we are searching for them in a focused and spirited manner.
The Search for Moral Definitions
The other insight from Socrates which I want to briefly discuss has to do with the Socratic Method. Socrates often uses dialogue and questioning to examine the definition and the nature of moral concepts such as piety, justice, temperance, courage and virtue. I think that there is broad agreement that Socrates uses it in a negative way to show that the claims to know these things are false. Socrates often finds himself in the company of people who claim to know these moral concepts and to be able to give a definition of them, but he always manages to show that they have not pinned it down so well and that these definitions leave out important uses of the terms and considerations. Clearly, Socrates believes that when it comes to moral terms, there are no essences and no final and concrete definitions. Perhaps he wants us to reflect on how little we know and recognize our limitations as the first step in studying philosophy and pursuing knowledge.
Some thinkers assume that the only insight here is about skepticism about definitions and essences. But I think that there is more to the search for moral definitions than that. When we look closely at various perspectives on those concepts that form the basis of the moral life and reason about them, we can actually learn a lot about them, orient ourselves differently, and perhaps even become better human beings.
The Socratic cross-examination can strengthen and clarify our moral thinking in a number of ways. When we apply it to our own beliefs and compel ourselves to give good justifications for them, it makes us look at the assumptions behind our own ways of thinking, actions and feelings. It can flush out some of the inconsistencies in our moral beliefs. This kind of self-examination can also compel us to order our moral life better and to better match our actions with our words. Those who do not have their moral values and beliefs in order and have not put their beliefs under examination, are probably confused about the right way to live and to act, have inconsistent moral views, practice self-deception more than others, and often act in a self-serving way. They may do whatever suits them, and later rationalize these actions in some way.
Reasoning about morality and looking closely at various views on morality and moral concepts can broaden our moral horizons. Socrates does not believe that right and wrong are merely matters of opinion and he opposes the moral relativism of the Sophists. But he believes that there are no simple definitions or essences for moral concepts. This however does not mean that the search for their meaning and looking at their nature closely is useless and a waste of time. Examining the various views on moral concepts can certainly help us to clarify them and come to a better understanding of them. It can help us with discovering the contours of these concepts, gradually unfolding them. We will not get crystal clear answers but things will become more clear. This investigation can also help us with coming up with more objective and impartial moral standards.
The Wisdom of Socrates
The ethical insights of Socrates remain as powerful and useful today as they have always been. Socrates like other philosophers is calling on us to listen to what he has to say and to reflect on these things. But if we do not have the ear for it, we will not hear him. Socrates was wise and had many insights, but this was missed by the Athenians. His wisdom was not beaming out of him and it was not easy to recognize. It required listening closely and charitably. Some found him and his mannerisms to be repulsive and perceived him as some kind of a threat because his questioning made them uneasy. He was not heard by them but made into a caricature. But Plato listened to him with generosity. He believed that Socrates was a good man with a noble mission who was falsely charged with harming people. He knew what kind of a person Socrates was and he knew that the charges against him were false. Plato knew that Socrates would rather be harmed by others than to inflict harm on them.
What is important to note here, I think, is that the good human qualities, such as fairness, understanding, self-command, and consideration for others must be cultivated and worked on, because we are unlikely to hit on them by chance or just pick them up casually. This is why philosophy and the search for values and answers are so important. The virtues are free for taking. They are right there next to us, they are in some sense near us, like on the mantle or on the bookcase, but we must first see them and recognize them, and then work hard to cultivate them to make them ours.
It is very difficult to turn people away from consoling themselves by comparing themselves with others and to compel them to be self critical and hard on themselves. People often just do not want to hear it. But undoubtedly this is the way to grow as a human being, to become mentally strong, to gain confidence in your self, and to become better. Morality is not about shaking your fingers at others, it is about serious and deep reflections on what sort of a person one is and turning oneself around.
Finally, for Socrates pursuing philosophy meant that he did not align himself with the powers to be or with the Athenian people, in the sense that he did not pander to them and extol their virtues. He did not think that rationalizing what the people do and believe is doing philosophy. He questioned authority and the establishment. He was also critical of easy answers. He believed that there are deeper truths and realities behind the appearances and he tried to get at them. He also encouraged those who would listen to him to search things out for themselves, using his question and answer method. This method was designed to help us to think for ourselves. To conform, to passively sacrifice our identity to society, and to submit to the majority may have their rewards but they can also mean not searching for and discovering higher and better things for our own selves. Socrates was worried about his own children becoming part of the mass and asked others to not let this happen to them. This was one of his final wishes.
Rotterdam, Netherlands
