India's Parthian
colony
On the origin of the Pallava empire of Dravidia
By Dr. Samar Abbas, India
May 14, 2003
The Iranian
This paper reveals the ancient Pallava Dynasty of Dravidia
to be of the Iranic race, and as constituting a branch of the Pahlavas,
Parthavas or Parthians of Persia. It uncovers the consequent Iranic
foundations of Classical Dravidian architecture. It also describes
a short history of the Pallavas of Tamil Nadu, including the cataclysmic
100-Years' Maratha-Tamil War. The modern descendants of Pallavas
discovered amongst the Chola Vellalas of northern Tamil Nadu and
Reddis of Andhra. (Some names in this text are garbled.
The Word document characters could not be converted.)
1. Pallavas, Pahlavas, Parthavas, Parthians and Persians
1.1. Introduction
The Pallava Empire was the largest and most powerful South Asian
state in its time, ranking as one of the glorious empires of world
history. At its height it covered an area larger than France, England
and Germany combined. It encompassed all the present-day Dravidian
nations, including the Tamil, Telugu, Malayali and Kannada tracts
within its far-flung borders (larger
map).
The foundations of classical Dravidian architecture were established
by these powerful rulers, who left behind fantastic sculptures and
magnificent temples which survive to this very day. Initially, the
similarity of the words "Pallava" and "Pahlava" had led 19th-century
researchers to surmise an Iranic origin for the Pallavas. Since
then, a mountain of historical, anthropological, and linguistic
evidence has accumulated to conclusively establish that the Pallavas
were of Parthian origin.
1.2. Occurrence of Parsas across the world
The wide occurrence of the Iranic root-word Par in various place-names
proves the dispersion of the Pars or Persians across much of Asia
in ancient times. Thus, Persia, Persepolis, Pasargadae ("Gates of
Parsa") and "Parthaunisa (ancient city, Parthia)" or Nisa (Enc.
Brit., vol.9, p.173) are all constructed from the ancient Iranic
root-word Pars.
In this regard, the learned Prof. Waddell notes in his masterpiece
The Makers of Civilization: "Barahsi or Parahsi [of Akkadian
inscriptions] now transpires to be the original of the ancient Persis
province of the Greeks, with its old capital at Anshan or Persepolis,
the central province of Persia to the East of Elam and the source
of our modern names of 'Persia' and 'Parsi'. And it is another instance
of the remarkable persistence of old territorial names" (Waddell
1929, p.216).
The Parsumas mentioned in Assyrian annals are also generally
identified with the Persians, and the Zoroastrian Parsis of Maharashtra
are clearly of Persic descent. Moreover, the word Parthian is itself
derived from Parsa, as the Encyclopedia Britannica notes:
"The first certain occurrence of the name is as Parthava in the
Bisitun inscription (c.520 BC) of the Achaemenian king Darius I,
but Parthava may be only a dialectal variation of the name
Parsa (Persian)." (Enc.Brit. Vol.9, p.173)
Professor Michael Witzel of Harvard University has further identified
the Parnoi as the Pani mentioned in the Vedas:
"Another North Iranian tribe were the (Grk.) Parnoi,
Ir. *Parna. They have for long been connected with another
traditional enemy of the Aryans, the Paṇi (RV+). Their
Vara-like forts with their sturdy cow stables have been compared
with the impressive forts of the Bactria-Margiana (BMAC) and the
eastern Ural Sintashta cultures (Parpola 1988, Witzel 2000), while
similar ones are still found today in the Hindukush." (Witzel 2001,
p.16)
Thus, the Persians, Parthians, Pashtos, Panis and Perizzites are all
offhoots of the ancient proto-Persians. This testifies to the achievements
of the Persian branch of the Iranic race in civilizing and colonizing
Southern Asia. All this, of course, is well known and the subject
of numerous books (cf, eg. Derakhshani 1999). Less famous is the fact
that the magnificent Pallava Dynasty of Southern India was also of
Iranic descent.
1.3. Pahlava History in Iran
The Pahlavas made important contributions to Iranian civilization.
The modern Farsi tongue is derived from the Old Parthian language,
as noted by the Encyclopedia Britannica: "Of the modern
Iranian languages, by far the most widely spoken is Persian, which,
as already indicated, developed from Middle Persian and Parthian,
with elements from other Iranian languages such as Sogdian, as early
as the 9th century AD." (Enc.Brit.vol.22, p.627) Furthermore, "Middle
Persian [Sassanian Pahlava] and Parthian were doubtlessly similar
enough to be mutually intelligible." (Enc.Brit.22.624); a statement
which further confirms the identity of the Pahlavas and the Parthians.
Moreover, the Pahlava alphabet is the ancestor of the Sasanian
Persian alphabet: "The Pahlava alphabet developed from the Aramaic
alphabet and occurs in at least three local varieties: northwestern,
called Pahlavik or Arsacid; southwestern, called Parsik or Sasanian,
and eastern" (Enc.Brit. vol.9, p.62).
Some authorities seem to insist that it was the Semitic Aramaic
alphabet which gave birth to the Parthian alphabet. This is not
so; it was actually the Assyrian variant which developed into the
Pahlava characters, just as it was Assyrian art, not Aramaean, which
inspired later Achaemenid culture. The Achaemenid empire was in
many ways the successor-state of the Assyrian empire.
1.4. Pallavas of Dravidia as Pahlavis
The Pallavas are first attested in the northern part of Tamil Nadu,
precisely the geographical region expected for an invading group.
This, together with the evident phonetic similarity between the words
"Pallava" and "Pahlava", has long led researchers to advocate a Parthian
origin of the Pallavas:
"Theory of Parthian origin: The exponents of this theory
supported the Parthian origin of the Pallavas. According to this
school, the Pallavas were a northern tribe of Parthian origin constituting
a clan of the nomads having come to India from Persia. Unable to
settle down in northern India they continued their movements southward
until they reached Kanchipuram5. The late Venkayya supported
this view 6 and even attempted to determine the date
of their migration to the South. A crown resembling an elephant's
head was issued by the early Pallava kings and is referred to in
the Vaikunthaperumal temple sculptures at the time of Nandivarman
Pallavamalla's ascent to the throne. A similiar crown was in use
by the early Bactrian kings in the 2nd century BC and figures on
the coins of Demetrius. It is presumed on this basis that there
is some connection between the Pallavas of Kanchi and Bactrian kings.
[5. Mysore Gazetteer, I. p.303-304; 6. ASR {Ann.Rep.ASI), 1906-1907,
p.221 ]." (Minakshi 1977, p.4)
As Venkayya notes,
"[T]he Pallavas of Kāñcīpuram
must have come originally from Persia, though the interval of
time which must have elapsed since they left Persia must be several
centuries. As the Persians are generally known to (p.220) Indian
poets under the name Pārasīka, the term Pahlava or
Pallava must denote the Arsacidan Parthians, as stated
by Professor Weber." (Venkayya 1907, p.219-220)
Philogists concur in connecting the names Pahlava, Parthava, Parthian
and Pallava:
"The word Pahlava, from which the name Pallava
appears to be derived, is believed to be a corruption of Pārthava,
Pārthiva or Pārthia, and Dr. Bhandarkar calls the Indo-Parthians
Pahlavas. The territories of the Indo-Parthians lay in Kandahar
and Seistan, but extended during the reign of Gondophares (about
AD 20 to 60) into the Western Punjab and the valley of the lower
Indus. The Andhra king Gotamiputra, whose dominions lay in the Dakhan,
claims to have defeated about AD 130 the Palhavas along with the
Śakas and Yavanas. In the Junāgaḍh inscription
of the Kṣatrapa king Rudradāman belonging to about AD
150, mention is made of a Pallava minister of his named Suviśākha."
(Venkayya 1907, p.218)
2. Evidence for Parthian Descent of Pallavas
A whole mountain of evidence from various fields of science support
the Parthian, and hence Iranic, origin of the Pallavas. It would be
of interest to summarise the evidence here.
2.1. Archaeology
Archaeologists note the occurrence of oblong earthenware coffins in
sites coinciding with the region of Pallava hegemony:
"Oblong earthenware sarcophagi, both mounted
and unmounted, have been reported from several sites in S. India
from Maski in the North to Puduhotta in the South. Their distribution
in what was during historical period the region of Pallava hegemony
is not without significance in the light of a Parthian
origin of the Pallavas suggested by Heras (Heras, H.J.: Origin of
the Pallavas, J. of the Univ. of Bombay, Vol. IV, Pt IV, 1936) and
afterwards by Venkatasubba Iyer ("A new link between the Indo-Parthians
and Pallavas of Kanchi", J. of Indian History, Vol. XXIV, Pts
1 & 2, 1945).
2.2. Administration
Pallava administration was based on the Maurya pattern, which was
in turn based on that of the Achaemenid Empire.
"[T]he early Pallava kings issued their charters in Prakrit
and Sanskrit and not in Tamil and their early administration was
based on the Mauryan-Satavahana pattern, essentially northern in
character. Their gotra (Bharadvaja) also stands in the way of their
identification with the Kurumbar who had no gotra claims." (Minakshi
1977, p.5)
2.3. Dress
The dress of the Pallavas is cleary Parthian. Thus, Nair notes,
A possible link between the Parthians and the
Pallavas is the mode of tying the waist-band as evidenced by their
statuary (compare the knot in Pallava waist-band with knot in Parthian
waist-band ...)" (Nair 1977, p.85)
The entire city of Mamallapuram or Mahamallapuram in Tamil Nadu
is named after the Pallava King Mahamalla who is celebrated as the
founder of this city. This original Prakrit name "Mahamallapuram"
was later corrupted in the Sanskrit into "Mahabalipuram". In this
regard, Venkayya notes the origin of the name "Mamallapuram":
"[I]n ancient Cōḍa inscriptions found at
the Seven Pagodas, the name of the place is Māmallapuram which
is evidently a corruption of Mahāmallapuram, meaning `the
city or town (p.234) of Mahāmalla.' I have already mentioned
the fact that Mahāmalla occurs as a surname of the Pallava
king Narasiṁhavarman I in a mutilated record at Bādāmi
in the Bombay Presidency. It is thus not unlikely that Mahāmallapuram
or Māvalavaram was founded by the Pallava king Narasiṁhavarman,
the contemporary and opponent of the Calukya Pulikēśin
II., whose accession took place about AD. 609. Professor Hultzsch
is of opinion that the earliest inscriptions on the rathas are birudas
of a king named Narasiṁha. It may, therefore, be concluded
that the village was originally called Mahāmallapuram or Māmallapuram,
after the Pallava king Narasiṁhavarman I., and that the earliest
rathas were cut out by him." (Venkayya 1907, p.233-234)
Surviving contemporary sculptures of this celebrated King Mamalla
depict him wearing a typical cylindrical Iranian head-dress:
Fig.2: Pallava King Mamalla or Narasimhavarman I
(Dharmaraja Ratha, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu)
Note the cylindrical Persian hat, long thin nose and long-headedness.
(Image by Michael D. Gunther)
Furthermore, the elephant-head crown used by Pallava kings resembled
those worn by Bactrian kings (cf. Appendix I).
2.4. Prakrit Language
The Pallavas initially propagated Prakrit, a language containing a
much higher percentage of Indo-European words compared to Sanskrit
as it represented a later, and hence purer, heliolatric Indo-European
invasion. "These three Prākṛt grants prove that there
was a time when the court language was Prākṛt even in
Southern India." (Venkayya 1907, p.223) That they initially did not
propagate Sanskrit or Tamil is significant as it rules out a Vedic
or Dravidian origin for the Pallavas.
2.5. Toponyms and Personal Names
Evidence from toponyms (place-names) corroborates the Iranic origin
of Pallavas. For instance, the Pallavas named a city in Tamil Nadu
as Menmatura or Men-Matura, after Mithra, the ancient Iranic Sun-God,
formed from tbe consonantal root MTR. The large town in southern
Tamil Nadu, Madurai, is named after the Sun-temple city of Mathura
in Oudh, which is also based on "Mithra". Further, the Pallavas
had a fondness for Iranic Prakrit personal names such as Ashoka:
"In the Kāśākuḍi plates, Aśōkavarman
is referred to as the son of king Pallava. Here Aśōkavarman
is evidently a reminiscence of the Maurya emperor Aśōka
who lived long before the Pallavas." (Venkayya 1907, p.240, footnote
8).
The Pallavas thus sought to emulate the Maurya kings, who were
of Iranic origin (Spooner 1915, p.406ff). It is important to note
that the Iranic root-word "Mor" occurs all across the Iranian world:
consider the "Mardian" tribe of Persians mentioned by Herodotus;
"the Avestan name Mourva, the Marga of the Achaemenian inscriptions"
(Spooner 1915, p.406), and the city of Merv, also known as "Merw,
Meru or Maur", whose inhabitants are known as "Marga and Mourva"
(ibid.), the legendary "Meru" mountain, the "Amorites" or "Amurru"
of Syria and Palestine who possessed an Iranic ruling caste, the
"Amu-Darya" river, "Amol" town just south of the Caspian, "Marwar"
in Rajputana, the Oudh towns of "Mor-adabad" and "Meerut", the "Maurya"
dynasty of Ashoka, and the "Marut" warriors in India.
2.6. Official Symbolism
To this evidence we may add that the Pallavas had as their crest
the lion, just as the Achaemenids carved lions at Persepolis. Describing
the cave at Siyamangalam, Venkayya notes:
"This was excavated by king Laḷitāṅkura,
ie. Mahēndravarman I. and was called Avanibhājana-Pallavēśvara,
Ep.Ind., Vol.VI, p.320. I recently inspected the cave and
the two inscriptions found in it. The two outer pillars of the cave
on which they are engraved also bear at the top a well-executed
lion (one on each of the two pillars) with the tail folded over
its back. The tail resembles that of the lion figured in No.54,
Plate II. of Sir Walter Elliot's Coins of Southern India,
which has been attributed to the Pallavas. It has therefore to be
concluded that the lion was the Pallava crest at some period or
other of their history." (Venkayya 1907, p.232, ftn.6)
2.7. Anthropology
The depictions of Pallava nobles on sculptures further confirms
their Iranic origin, for they are depicted as tall and dolichocephalic
(long-headed) along with clearly Iranic features.
Fig.3: Court Scene, Mamallapuram 7th century AD
(Pallava)
Note the long-headedness and leptorrhine (long and thin)
nose of the surrounding Iranic courtiers. Contrast this with
the platyrrhine (flat) nose, thick lips and Negroid features
of the Dravidian God Shiva standing with his bull in the
centre. Note clear Persepolitan influence on the pillars.
(Image by Michael D. Gunther)
Larger
image
The long-headedness of these sculptures rules out an Outer Indo-Aryan
origin for the Pallavas, while their leptorrhine noses rule out
a Dravidian origin.
2.8. Architecture
The architecture of the Pallavas was clearly based on Iranian
forms, down to the last detail. Pillars especially were copies of
Persepolitan originals (see Fig.4 and Fig.3).
Fig.4: Varaha Cave Temple, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu,
late 7th century. Note the clear Achaemenid influence
on the pillars, and the Persepolitan capitals. Flanking
lions are reminiscent of Persepolis and Assyria.
(Image by Michael D. Gunther)
Larger
image
2.9. Legendary Descent
The traditional genealogy of the Pallavas also points to their
Parthian origins:
"One point which might be taken as proof of the foreign
origin of the Pallavas has to be noted here. The indigenous Kṣatriya
tribes (or at least those which were looked upon as such) belonged
either to the solar or to the lunar race. For instance, the Cōḷas
belonged to the solar race and the Pāṇḍyas to
the lunar. The Cēras seem to have belonged to the solar race.
The Calukyas - both the Eastern and Western - were of the lunar
race. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas were also of
the same race. On the other hand, the Pallavas trace their descent
from the god Brahma but not from the Sun or the Moon, though they
are admitted to have been Kṣatriyas. Besides, none of the
ancient kings mentioned in the Purāṇas figures in the
ancestry of the Pallavas. The indigenous tribes, however, always
traced their ancestry from some of the famous kings known from the
Purāṇas. The Cōḷas, for instance claimed
Manu, Ikṣvāku, Māndhātr, Mucukunda and Śibi;
the Pāṇḍyas were descended from the emperor Purūravas;
the C ēras had Sagara, Bhagiratha, Raghu, Daśaratha
and Rāma for their ancestors. The Calukyas had a long list
of Purāṇic sovereigns in their ancestry. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas
were descendants of Yadu and belonged to the Sātyaki branch
or clan. The Gaṅga kings of Kaliṅganagara were descended
from the Moon and claimed Purūravas, Āyus, Nahuṣa,
Yayāti and Turvasu for their ancestors. (Ind. Ant.
Vol. XVIII, p.170). The Western Gaṅgas of Taḷakāḍ
were apparently of the solar race and had Ikṣvāku for
their ancestor (Mr Rice's Mysore Gazetteer, Vol.I, p.308).
The only king mentioned in the mythical genealogy of the Pallavas
is Aśōkavarman, son of king Pallava , who, as Prof.
Hultzsch rightly suspects, is probably "a modification of the Maurya
emperor Aśōka" (South Ind. Inscrs. Vol.II, p.342).
No doubt the earliest Pallava records were found in the Kistna delta.
But this cannot be taken to point to an indigenous origin of the
family. All these facts together raise the presumption that the
Pallavas of Southern India were not an indigenous tribe in the sense
that the Cōḷas, Pāṇḍyas and Cēras
were." (Venkayya 1907, p.219, footnote 5)
The above evidences, taken together rather than singly, provide
almost conclusive proof of the Parthian origin of Pallavas.
3. History of the Pallavas
3.1. Early History: Adoption of Dravidian Culture
After immigrating from Parthia, the Pallavas settled down in the
Andhra region. From here they entered northern Tamil Nadu. Initially,
the Pallava Empire was restricted to Toṇḍai-maṇḍalam,
the northern part of Tamil Nadu: "It thus appears that the Pallava
dominions included at the time [Sivaskandavarman, beg. 4th century
AD] not only Kāñcipuram and the surrounding province
but also the Telugu country as far north as the river Kṛṣṇā."
(Venkayya 1907, p.222) Subsequently, the Pallavas expanded to conquer
large parts of Andhra:
"The Pallava dominions probably comprised at the time
[5th-6th centuries AD] the modern districts of (p.225) Nellore,
Guntur, Kistna, Kurnool and perhaps also Anantapur, Cuddapah, and
Bellary. The Kadambas of Banavāsi, who were originally Brāhmaṇas,
threatened to defy the Pallavas." (Venkayya 1907, p.224-225)
Tamil poets described the boundaries of Toṇḍai-maṇḍalam
as follows:
"According to the Toṇḍamaṇḍala-śatakam,
Toṇḍamaṇḍalam (ie. the Pallava territory)
was bounded on the north by the Tirupati and Kālahasti mountains;
on the south by the river Pālār; and on the west by
the Ghauts (Taylor's Catalogue, Vol.III, p.29). A verse attributed
to the poetess Auvaiyār describes Toṇḍai-maṇḍalam
as the country bounded by the Pavaḷamalai, ie. the Eastern
Ghauts in the west; Vēṅgaḍam, ie. Tirupati in
the north; the sea to the east; and Piṇāgai, ie. the
Southern Pennar in the south. The greatest length of the province
is said to be full 20 kādam or nearly 200 miles.... A variant
of the name Toṇḍai-maṇḍalam is Daṇḍaka-nāḍu,
which is apparently derived from the Sanskrit Daṇḍakāraṇya,
ie the forest of Daṇḍaka mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa
and the Purāṇas." (Venkayya 1907, p.222, footnote 2)
After settling in Tondai-mandalam, the Pallavas rapidly adopted
the Dravidian culture, religion and language of their subjects.
This case was not unique in history; there are many examples of
ruling classes adopting the culture of those they ruled: consider
the Hellenic Ptolemies in Egypt, the Paleo-Siberian Manchus in China,
the Germanic Lombards in Italy, the Nordic Visigoths in Spain, the
Mongol Il-Khans in Persia, the French-speaking Normans in England,
and the Germanic Carolingians, Merovingians, Burgundians and Franks
of France. Thus, the Pallavas adopted the Old Tamil language and
the Dravidian religion of Shaivism and became vigorous promoters
of Dravidian culture.
3.2. Expansion of the Pallava Empire
From its nucleus in Tondaimandalam, the Pallava Empire expanded
in all directions. The Pan-Dravidian nature of the Pallava empire
is manifested through the extent of their dominions. Thus, the Pallavas
vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas and conquered their territories,
uniting Tamil Nadu, Malabar, Karnadu and Telingana into one giant
empire:
"The earliest king of this series is Siṁhaviṣṇu,
who claims to have vanquished the Malaya, Kalabhra, Mālava,
Cōḷa and Pāṇḍya kings, the Siṁhala
king proud of the strength of his arms and the Kēralas." (Venkayya
1907, p.227)
This was the first pan-Dravidian empire in history. Perhaps they were
able to unite the Dravidian nations precisely because they were outsiders,
and hence did not possess any history of feuding with local clans.
Thus, we find the Pallavas conquering all the three mutually warring
Pandya, Cola and Cera kingdoms:
"The Cēra, Cōḷa and Pāṇḍya
kingdoms of the south are mentioned already in the edicts of the
Maurya emperor Aśōka. Of their subsequent history, almost
nothing is known from the epigraphical records, until we get to
the period of Pallava rule, when all the three figure among the
tribes conquered by the Pallavas." (Venkayya 1907, p.237)
After consolidating their rule over the Dravidian nations, the Pallavas
extended their empire to South-East Asia:
"The Pallavas were the emperors of the Dravidian country
and rapidly adopted Tamil ways. Their rule was marked by commercial
enterprise and a limited amount of colonization in South-East Asia,
but they inherited rather than initiated Tamil interference with
Ceylon." (Enc.Brit. Vol.9, p.89)
However, the exact extent of Pallava colonization in South-East
Asia is not clear due to paucity of sources. Even so, the Pallava
Empire was the largest South Asian state of its age, and served
as the model for future pan-Dravidian empires such as that built
by the Cholas.
3.3. The 100-Years' Maratha-Tamil War (AD 634-747) & Decline
The Indian equivalent of Europe's Anglo-French 100-Years' War was
the prolonged conflict between Marathas and Tamils under the Chalukyas
and Pallava dynasties which lasted well over a century.
"The history of this period consists mainly of the events of
the war with the Calukyas which lasted almost a century 7
(footnote 7: The war apparently began with the Eastern campaign
of Pulikēśin II. which must have taken place some
time before AD 634-5 (Ep.Ind., Vol.VI, p.3). The last important
event of the war is the invasion of Kāñci by the
Calukya king Vikramāditya II, who reigned from AD 733-4
to 746-7. Kirtivarman II, son of Vikramaditya II, also claims
to have led an expedition in his youth against the Pallavas. ...
) and which seems to have been the ultimate cause of the decline
and downfall of both the Pallavas and Calukyas about the middle
of the 8th century." (Venkayya 1907, p.226)
At this point, we may note Mr. Rice's hypothesis that the Calukyas
were Seleucids:
"Mr. Rice says: `The name Calukya bears a suggestive
resemblance to the Greek name Seleukeia, and if the Pallavas were
really of Parthian connection, as their name would imply, we have
a plausible explanation of the inveterate hatred which inscriptions
admit to have existed between the two, and their prolonged struggles
may have been but a sequel of the contests between the Seleucidæ
and the Arsacidæ on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates.'
(Mysore, Vol.I, p.320)" (Venkayya 1907, p.226, footnote 6)
However, Mr. Rice's suggestion has not been accepted by other
historians, and is merely a phonetic coincidence, for there is no
other evidence of any connection whatsoever between the Calukyas
and Seleucids.
Historians have found several reasons for explaining the bitterness
of the Maratha-Dravidian wars. Venkayya notes the religious aspect
of the conflict, with the Vaishnava Marathas on one side and the
Dravidian Shaivites on the other:
"No satisfactory explanation has, so far, been offered
for this natural enmity between the Pallavas and Calukyas. It is
possible that the hatred had a religious basis. The Pallavas were
Śaivas and had the bull for their crest, while the Calukyas
were devotees of the god Viṣṇu and had the bear for
their crest." (Venkayya 1907, p.226, footnote 6)
Shaivism and Vaishnavism are poles apart in all details of theology.
Vaishnavites revere the cow, Shaivites slaughter the cow but worship
the bull; Vaishnavites uphold the four-fold caste system, Shaivites
oppose the caste system tooth and nail; later Vaishnavism upholds
the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans, Shaivism rejects the
Vedas and is anti-Brahmin. Thus, observers have noted that Vaishnavism
and Shaivism are like cat and mongoose, theologically destined to
be locked in an eternal war of opposites. Hence, religion played an
important role in exacerbating the hatred on both sides.
However, a far deeper reason contributed to the conflict, namely
that of ethnicity. Abstract theological formulae, on account of
their nebulous definition and easily modified nature, no doubt hardly
mattered to the great majority of inhabitants. Rather, it is race
and ethnicity which combined to make the Pallava-Chalukya conflict
especially bitter. Thus, the so-called Calukya-Pallava dynastic
conflict was in actual fact a racial Maratha-Dravidian war.
On the one hand were the Marathas speaking Outer Indo-Aryan languages,
of brachycephalic (round-headed) Turanoid race. The survival of
Burushaski - a language isolate linked with the Transcaucasian and
Finno-Ugric languages - in the Himalayas testifies to the immigration
of brachycephalic Turanian peoples into India. The Turanoid Maratha
is thus fair-skinned, short-statured and round-headed. On the other
hand were the long-headed and taller, black-skinned Dravidians of
Sudanic Negroid origin. The Dravidians, however, had a long-headed
Iranic Pallava ruling class. The Iranoid longheads are fairer and
taller than the Dravidoid longheads, who are in turn taller but
darker than the Turanoid Outer Indo-Aryan roundheads. Thus, racial
differences no doubt played, along with language and religion, a
prominent role in the conflict.
At the outset of the 100-year Maratha-Tamil War, it is the Marathas
who gained the upper hand, defeating the Pallavas and driving them
from the Vengi delta area of Andhra. However, the Pallavas later
defeated the Maharashtrians and sacked their capital Vatapi, annexing
it to the Dravidian Empire:
"The son of Mahēndravarman I. was Narasiṁhavarman
I., who retrieved the fortunes of the family by repeatedly defeating
the Cōḷas, Kēralas, Kalabhras and Pāṇḍyas.
He also claims to have written the word `victory' as on a plate,
on Pulikēśin's back, which was caused to be visible
(ie. which was turned in flight after defeat) at several battles.
Narasiṁhavarman carried the war into Calukya territory
and actually captured Vātāpi, their capital. This claim
of his is established by an inscription found at Bādāmi
in the Bombay Presidency - the modern name of Vātāpi
- from which it appears that Narasiṁhavarman bore the title
Mahāmalla. In later times, too, this Pallava king was known
as Vātāpi-koṇḍa-Naraśiṅgappōttaraiyan.
Dr. Fleet assigns the capture of the Calukya capital to about AD
642. 7 The war of Narasiṁhavarman with
Pulkēśin II is mentioned in the Singhalese chronicle
Mahāvaṁsa. It is also hinted in the Tamil Periyapurāṇam.
The well-known saint Śiṛuttoṇḍa, who had
his only son cut up and cooked in order to satisfy the appetite
of god Śiva disguised as a devotee, is said to have reduced
to dust the city of Vātāpi for his royal master, who
could be no other than the Pallava king Narasiṁhavarman.9
[footnote 9: Ep.Ind. Vol.III, p.277. . Paramēśvaravarman
I. also claims to have destroyed the Calukya capital. A still later
conquest of Vātāpi is also known. It was effected by
a Koḍumbāḷūr chief, apparently during the
second half of the 9th century. (Ann.Rep. on Epi. for 1907-8, Part
II, para.85)] The Śaiva saint Tiruñānasambandar
visited Śiṛuttoṇḍa at this native village
fo Tirucceṅgāṭṭaṅguḍi, and the
Dēvāra hymn dedicated to the Śiva temple of the
village mentions the latter and thus helps to fix the date of the
former as well as of the Śaiva revival of which he was the
central figure." (Venkayya 1907, p.228)
Unsung and forgotten are the countless heroes on both sides, their
deeds and brave acts lost in the mist of time, yet heroes they were
nevertheless. Like the knights of the 100-Years' Anglo-French War,
the glorious warriors of the 100-Years' Maratha-Tamil War fought
and died for their homelands, strengthening these nations' foundations
with their blood and bones.
This 100-year Maratha-Tamil war had far-reaching consequences,
leading to the exhaustion of both the Maratha and Dravidian states
and sapping their vitality. These states started to decline after
the war. Ultimately, both the Calukya and Pallava states disappeared
from history.
3.4. Modern-Day Pallavas
After the Pallava Empire was annexed by the Chola Empire, the Pallavas
merged into the Tamil population:
"The Pallavas of the Tamil country seem to have taken
service under the Cōḷas after the Gaṅga-Pallavas
were conquered by Āditya about the end of the 9th century
AD. Karuṇākara Toṇḍaimāṇ, who,
according to the Tamil poem Kaliṅgattu-Paraṇi led the
expedition against Kaliṅga during the reign of Kulōttuṅga
I. (AD 1070 to about AD 1118), was a Pallava and was the lord of
Vaṇḍai, ie. Vaṇḍalur in the Chingleput District.
Among the vassals of Vikrama-Cōḷa mentioned in the Vikkirama-Śōḷaṇ-ulā,
the Toṇḍaimāṇ figures first." (Venkayya
1907, p.241)
The Pudukkottai royal family is apparently descended from the ancient
Pallavas:
"In a Tanjore inscription belonging to a later period,
the name Toṇḍaimāṇ is applied to a local
chief named Sāmantanārāyana, who granted to Brāhmaṇas
a portion of the village of Karundiṭṭaiguḍi, the
modern Karattaṭṭāṅguḍi. Thus the name
Toṇḍaimāṇ actually travelled from the Pallava
into the Cōḷa country. There is therefore reason to
suppose that the Toṇḍaiman of Pudukkōṭṭai,
who bears the title Pallava Raja, is descended from the Pallavas,
who form the subject of this paper." (Venkayya 1907, p.242)
In addition to the royal family of Pudukkottai, other groups are also
probably descended from the Pallavas, such as the Reddis of Andhra
and some of the Kshatriya and Vaishya castes of northern Tamil Nadu:
"We now have to examine if there are any Pallavas in
our midst beyond the royal family of Pudukkōṭṭai.
The Pallavas are believed to be identical with the Kurumbas, of
whom the Kurumbar of the Tamil country and the Kurubas of the Kanarese
districts and of the Mysore State may be taken as the living representatives.
The (p.243) kings of the Vijayanagara dynasty are also supposed
to have been Kurubas. In one of the inscriptions of the Tanjore
temple belonging to the 11th century, a certain Vēlāṇ
Ādittaṇ is called Pirāntaka-Pallavaraiyan, meaning
"the chief of the Pallavas of Parāntaka." Śēkkiḷār,
the author of the Tamil Periyapurāṇam, was a Veḷḷāḷa
by caste and got from his patron, the Cōḷa king Anapāya,
the title Uttamaśōḷa-Pallavarāyaṇ,
meaning "the chief of the Pallavas of Uttamaśōḷa."
Uttamaśōḷa and Parāntaka are titles of Cōḷa
kings and the word Pallava seems to be used in both of the titles
as an equivalent of Veḷḷāḷa, or the caste
of agriculturalists to which both of them belonged. In
the Telugu country, too, some of the Reḍḍis who belonged
to the fourth or cultivating caste, called themselves Pallava-Triṇētra
and Pallavāditya. Sir Walter Elliot has told us that Pallavarāja
is one of the thirty gōtras of the true Tamil-speaking Veḷḷāḷas
of Madura, Tanjore and Arcot. It is borne by the Cōḷa
Veḷḷāḷas inhabiting the valley of the Kāvēri,
in Tanjore, who lay claim to the first rank. All these
facts taken together seem to show that there was some sort of connection
between the cultivating caste and the Pallavas in the Tamil as well
as in the Telugu country. The available evidence is, however, not
sufficient to formulate the nature of this connection. But it may
tentatively be supposed that some of the Pallavas settled down as
cultivators soon after all traces of their sovereignty disappeared.
The other sections of the agricultural class were probably proud
of their association and considered it an honour to be looked uon
as Pallavas." (Venkayya 1907, p.242-243)
4. Iranian Origin of Dravidian Architecture and Contribution
to Dravidian Civilization
4.1. Iranic Origin of Dravidian Architecture
The Pallava foundations for Dravidian architecture is universally
accepted by scholars. For instance, a standard textbook on World Architecture
states, "Mahabalipuram, the five temples (rathas), Pallava (7th century
AD), are embryonic models of later Dravidian, or Southern, temple
styles." (Holberton, p.55). Confirming this view, the Encyclopedia
Britannica notes:
"The home of the South Indian style, sometimes called
the Dravida style, appears to be the modern state of Tamil Nadu
... The early phase, which, broadly speaking, coincided
with the political supremacy fo the Pallava dynasty (c.650-893),
is best represented by the important monuments at Mahabalipuram."
(Enc.Brit., Vol.27, p.767)
Suthanthiran summarises the views of various eminent scholars:
"The prototypes of later developed Kopurams are found
in the Pallava period. There are different views regarding the proto-types.
Heinrich Zimmer was of the view that the Pimaratam is the earliest
prototype of the Kopurams. Raghavendra Rao says that the finished
oblong plan and the two storeyed waggon roof of Kanesaratam is the
prototype of all South Indian Kopurams ... A.H.Longhurst says that
the Kailasanatha temple entrance Tavaracalai is the proto-type of
all later Kopurams." (Suthanthiran 1989, p.30)
Venkayya agrees with the Pallavite origin of Dravidian architecture:
"We now enter into a period of Pallava history
for which the records are more numerous. The facts available for
this period are definite and the chronology is not altogether a
field of conjecture and doubt. The earliest stone monuments of Southern
India belong to this period. In fact, the foundations of Dravidian
architecture were laid by the earlier kings of this series.5
(footnote 5: The monolithic caves of the Tamil country were excavated
by the Pallava king Mahēndravarman I. The rathas at
the Sevan Pagodas probably come next. The temples of Kaliēsanētha
and Vaikuṇṭha-Perumal at Kañcīpuram and
the Shore temple at the Sevan Pagodas have probably to be taken
as later developments of Pallava architecture.)" (Venkayya 1907,
p.226)
One of the gems of Pallava architecture is the Kailashanatha temple,
which was also known as Rajasimha-Pallavesvara in ancient times
(Venkayya 1907, p.234, footnote 3).
Fig.5: Stupendous Granite Kailasanatha temple (formerly
Rājasiṁhēśvara),
Tamil Nadu, view from NW, c.695-722 AD. Central shrine built by
Rājasiṁha
(Venkayya 1907, p.230). Note the Iranic vaulted-barrel cupola similar
to
Sassanian arch at Ctesiphon and the Babylonian-style step-pyramid
tower
or "Shikara". Longhurstholds that the Kailasanatha temple entrance
is the
proto-type of all later Gopurams. (Image courtesy Dr. Vandana Sinha,
American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon)
Larger
image
The pyramid-shaped tower or Shikara of the Kailashanatha temple
is strangely similar to Babylonian step-pyramids. Babylonia was
an integral part of the Parthian empire. While such innovations
could have been due to independant innovation, it is more likely
that the Pallavas were emulating Babylonian prototypes during the
construction of Kailasanatha.
Fig.6: Pancha-ratha Pallava Temple at Mamallapuram,
Tamil Nadu. Note the Saka-Buddhist vaulted-barrell
cupola on central building.
(Image by Stewart Lane Ellington)
Larger
image
The Pancha-ratha Pallava temple at Mamallapuram consists of five
temples, one having a Saka-Buddhist cupola, one an Egyptian-style
pyramid, and three having ziggurat-shaped roofs reminiscent of Sumer
and Babylon (cf. Fig.6) . This combination of designs is unlikely
to have been independantly invented without external stimulus. These
influences could only have come via Iran and the Pallavas, for the
Parthians ruled over Assyria and Babylonia.
4.2. Spread of Buddhism
The Pallavas played a major role in propagating the religion of Buddhism.
Buddha was known as Sakya-muni, Prakrit for "Lord of the Scythians",
and was an Iranian. Thus, there is little surprise when we find Pallavas
being the most ardent propagators of Buddhism: "The sect of Buddhism
preached in China by Buddha Varman, a Pallava Prince of Kanchi came
to be known as Zen Buddhism and it spread later to Japan and other
places." (Damodaran 1980, p.70). In other words, Zen Buddhism, like
its parent faith of Buddhism, was founded by an Iranian, Buddha Varman.
4.3. Dravidian Shaivism
As noted above, the Pallavas rapidly adopted the indigenous Dravidian
religion of Shaivism, and became staunch propagators of the faith.
Scores of Shiva temples constructed by the Pallavas remain. While
the Pallavas, like the Achaemenids and Parthians, were religiously
tolerant, the devotion of some Pallava kings to Shaivism went so far
that they went to the extent of demolishing Jain temples:
"According to the Periyapurāṇam, the saint
Tirunāvukkaraśar (also called Appar), and elder contemporary
of Tiruñānasambandar, was first persecuted and subsequently
patronised by a Pallava king who is said to have demolished the
Jaina monastery at Pāṭaliputtiram and built a temple
of Śiva called Guṇadaravīccaram." (Venkayya 1907,
p.235)
By and large, however, the primordial tolerance of Dravidian Shaivism
manifested itself, absorbing the other faiths in due course of time.
5. Refutation of Rival Theories on Origin of Parthians
Ayyar has summed up the various non-Parthian theories as follows:
"Thus some scholars considered the Pallavas as of Chōḷa-Nāga
origin 2, [2. Ind.Ant. Vol. LII, pp.75-80.] indigenous
to the southern part of the Peninsula and Ceylon and having nothing
to do with Western Indian and Persia, while others placed their
original home in the Andhra country between the rivers Kṛishṇā
and Gōdāvarī; yet others connected them with the
Mahārāshṭra Āryans 3 [3. C.V.Vaidya:
History of Mediaeval India, Vol.1, p.281.] and the Imperial
Vākāṭakas 4 [4. J.B.O.R.S.,
1933, p.180ff.]" (Ayyar 1945, p.11)
We now turn to the three theories, namely Chola-Naga, Andhra and
Maharashtra Aryan origins.
5.1. Refutation of the Maharashtrian and Vakataka Origin
The surviving sculptures in Tamil Nadu depict Pallavas as tall and
dolichocephalic (long-headed) (Fig.3), while the Marathas are short-statured
and brachycephalic (round-headed). Moreover, the Pallavas were Shaivites,
as opposed to the Maharastrians, who were adherents of the Vaishnavite
religion. Further, the Pallavas waged the brutal 100-year Maratha-Tamil
war against the Maratha Chalukyas. Had the Pallavas been Maharashtrians,
it is unlikely the conflict would have been so prolonged and of such
intensity. Thus, the Pallavas were almost certainly not of Maharastrian
origin. The slight Maharastrian influence amongst Pallavas is to be
attributed to their migration through Maharashtra on their way from
Persia to Tamil Nadu.
5.2. Refutation of alleged Vedic Origin
It is sometimes asserted that the Pallavas were of Vedic origin. However,
the Vedic and Puranic evidence itself contradicts this view:
"The word Pallava is apparently the Sanskrit form
of the tribal name Pahlava or Pahṇava of the
Purāṇas. The Pahlavas are described as a northern or
north-western tribe1 (footnote 1: In chapter 9 of the
Bhīṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata, the Pahlavas
are mentioned among the barbarians (mlēccha-jātayaḥ))
whose territory lay somewhere between the river Indus and Persia."
(Venkayya 1907, p.217)
Furthermore,
"In the Harivaṃśa 4 (footnote
4: XIV. verses 15 to 19) the Pahnavas5 (footnote 5: In
the Rāmāyana (I.55, verse 18) the Pahlavas are
said to have emanated from the bellowing of the miraculous cow Nandini,
which belonged to the sage Vasiṣṭha.) are said to have
been Kṣatriyas originally, but become degraded in later times.
They are mentioned here along with the Śakas, Yavanas and
Kāmbōjas and their chief characteristic was the beard
6 (footnote 6: The beards of the Westerns (ie. the Yavanas),
are also mentioned by Kālidāsa in his Raghuvaṁśa,
IV, 63) which Sagara permitted them to wear. In the Viṣṇu
Purāṇa , the Yavanas, Pahlavas and Kāmbhōjas
are said to have been originally Kṣatriya tribes who became
degraded by their separation from Brāhmaṇa and their
institutions.7 (footnote 7: Muir's Sanskrit Texts,
Vol.II, p.259, and Ind.Ant. Vol.IV, p.166). In Manu, the
Pahlavas are mentioned along with the Puṇḍrakas, Draviḍas,
Kāmbōjas, Yavanas, Śakas and other allied tribes.
These were all Kṣatriyas originally, but gradually became
degraded by their omission of the sacred rites and transgressing
the authority of the Brāhmaṇas." (Venkayya 1907, p.217)
Had the Pallavas been of Vedic origin, they would not be cursed
in this manner in the Brahmanic scripture. Moreover, the Pallavas
did not practice the custom of Vedic human sacrifice (purushamedha
or naramedha) and horse sacrifice (asvamedha). Nor did they permit
sati (widow-burning) or bride-burning. The Vedic and Brahmanic caste
system was also not supported. Also, the Pallavas in their earliest
times promoted Prakrit and not Sanskrit. Thus Venkayya notes, "The
earliest known records of the Pallavas are three Prākṛt
copper-plate charters, viz. (1) the Mayidavōlu plates of Śivaskandavarman,
(2) the Hirehaḍagalli plates of the same king and (3) the
British Museum plates of Cārudēvi." (Venkayya 1907,
p.222) These facts disprove the Vedic origin of the Pallavas.
5.3. Refutation of the Dravidian Origin
That the Pallavas were not Dravidians is evidenced from the fact that
their migration can be clearly traced via copper-plate grants as being
from the Telugu to the Tamil country. The Pallavas initially promoted
Prakrit, which also goes against the proposed Andhra origin of Pallavas.
Had they been Andhras, they would no doubt have propagated the proto-Telugu
Dravidian dialect.
In further opposition to the Dravidian origin of Pallavas, Venkayya
has fittingly asked why the Andhras should have adopted a name which
would lead to them being confused with the Pahlavas of Persia.
"Why the indigenous tribe which was formed in the Gōdāvari
delta called itself Pallava, a name which would lead to their being
mistaken for being Palhavas of Western India is a question which,
to my mind, must be satisfactorily answered before the theory of
indigenous origin can be accepted." (Venkayya 1907, p.219, footnote
5)
However, the Pallavas rapidly adopted the indigenous Dravidian
religion of Shaivism and propagated it, just as the Germanist Lombards
accepted the Roman Catholicism of their Latin Italian subjects.
That the Pallavas were able to flourish in Dravidia is a testimony
to Dravidian tolerance and open-mindedness, a rare characteristic
in those days.
The remaining rival theories on the origins of the Pallavas having
been undermined, the Parthian origin of the Pallavas remains as
the sole logical alternative.
6. Consequences and Conclusion
The Parthian origin of the Pallavas was eagerly adopted by virtually
all schools of Dravidologists from the very beginning. Formerly,
Indo-European influence in Dravidian had been attributed solely
to Sanskrit. Anti-Sanskrit Dravidianists welcomed the Iranic origin
of Pallavas as it decreased the Sanskrit proportion in the Indo-European
component of Dravidian civilization. Indeed, certain votaries of
this school believe that Iranic influence in Dravidian is more important
than that of Sanskrit.
Dravidianist evangelists have in their turn used the Pallava example
to demand that the Tamil Brahmins adopt Dravidian culture. Their
chief argument is that, if the Pallavas from distant Persia could
so eagerly adopt Dravidian civilization, then why couldn't the local
Tamil Brahmins?
Multi-culturalist Dravidianists, meanwhile, upheld the Pallavas
as an example of ancient Dravidian tolerance and multi-culturalism.
The South Indian Brahminist school, which is also largely multi-culturalist
(often miscalled 'secularist') in character, has largely followed
this path as well. The political use - and abuse - of history goes
on.
The Parthian origin of Pallavas also provides an explanation for
the presence of tall, fair-skinned members of non-Brahmin castes
in Tamil Nadu and other Dravidian states. Formerly attacked as mixed-caste,
part-Brahmin, offspring, it is observed that such persons are at
present claiming a Pallava-Parthian origin instead. This is certainly
true of certain Cholas, Vellalas and Reddis. Especially in case
of those fair individuals who are long-headed, a Pallavite origin
is more plausible than a mixed-Brahmin one, for the South Indian
Brahmins are generally round-heads. The Parthian theory of the origin
of Pallavas has thus helped a large number of people to be rehabilitated
in Dravidian society.
It is hoped that Iranists will be inspired by this work to carry
out further research on the achievements of the enterprising Pallavas
in Dravidia, and bring to light the full scale of Iranic influence
in Dravidian civilization.
Author
Afsar Abbas is a professor at the Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar,
India
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Prof. Shireen Moosvi and Prof.
Irfan Habib (Aligarh) for their kind assistance with references.
The author is also very grateful to Prof. P. Oktor Skjærvø
and Prof. Michael Witzel (Harvard) for kindly sending important
research material. Many thanks to Fatema Soudavar Farmanfarmaian
for fruitful discussions, and to The Iranian for publishing this
paper.
The author gratefully thanks Michael D. Gunther, //www.art-and-archaeology.com;
Dr. Vandana Sinha, American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon,
//www.indiastudies.org; and Stewart Lane Ellington, //stewellington.com
for permission to reproduce their wonderful images in this paper.
References
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